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Achaeans (Homer)

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The Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί, Akhaioí) were one of the four major tribes into which Homer divided the Greeks in the Heroic age. The name was used throughout the Iliad as one of the collective names for the Greeks, and in the Odyssey as denoting a kind of "pure blooded" type of Greek.

Etymology[]

According to Margalit Finkelberg[1] the name Ἀχαιοί/Ἀχαιϝοί is possibly derived, via an intermediate form *Ἀχαϝyοί, from a hypothetical older Greek[2] form reflected in the Hittite form Aḫḫiyawā; the latter is attested in the Hittite archives, e.g. in the Tawagalawa letter. However, Robert S. P. Beekes doubted its validity and suggested a Pre-Greek *Akaywa-.[3] William Drummond[4] believed the root ak to have signified water[5][6] and suggested that “those whose name was Hellenized into Ἀχαιοί, Achaioi were originally called اقیان, Akaian, lords or rulers.”[7]

Origins[]

Akhaioi was one of the primary terms used to refer to the Greeks by Homer in his 8th century BCE work the Illiad, based upon oral traditions that may have dated to the 12th century BCE.[8] They were mentioned 598 times, often accompanied by the epithet “long-haired” and distinguished from the Danoi, Argeioi and Hellenoi.[9] The tribe is likewise mentioned in the Odyssey, where it appears to refer to a “pure blooded” type of Greek.[10] There is no known use of the specific ethnonym Ἀχαιοί/Ἀχαιϝοί prior to Homer.

There was, however, a similar word in the Elamite language: ha-ak-ka-man-nu-iš (Ἀχαιμένης, Akhaiménēs). The Greeks viewed it as a compound of the roots "Ἀχαι" and "μένης." The latter means “moon”[11] and may have been related to worship of a lunar diety or the accounting of lunar cycles.[12][13] It was likewise the nebty name ascribed to the first king of a unified Egypt by Manetho some 1,700 years later.[14] A slight variation of the name ( Μάνηϛ) was ascribed to a legendary early king of Lydia.[15] The word is geographically linked to the tribal kingdom of Parsua during the 9th century BCE and perhaps to the Mēdoi as early as the 11th century BCE.[16] Darius I mythologized the term to legitimize his reign after usurping the throne of what was thereafter known as the Achaemenid Empire.[17] Herodotus states that the moon was the tutelary deity of the Iranian expatriates residing in Asia Minor in the 5th century BCE.[18]

It thus appears that the name of Homer’s Achaeans is essentially Elamite in its transmission via an Ionian tradition.[19] The tradition preserved some specific knowledge about a people known as "Ἀχαι" that the Elamites associated with worship of a moon deity and/or timekeeping based upon lunar cycles. That knowledge appears to originate from an Indo-Iranian source,[20][21] likely the Sintashta culture.[22]

But Homer did not create the Achaeans solely from Elamite myth. The Achaeans had “a historical and mythological background of which Homer is fully or partly aware,” including their settlements “not only within the borders of the Greek world but also out of them…”[23] Most significantly, Hesiod distinguished them from the Dorians which had come to dominate the Greek world by that time.[24] And there was a similarly named people occupying the region several hundred years earlier.

Ethnography[]

Many scholars have identified the 15th century BCE Ahhiya (LÚ URUa-aḫ-ḫi-i̯a-a)[25] with Mycenaean Greece.[26][27][28] Verbal endings of the Hittite "ḫi-" conjugation function as simple presents [tenses],[29] and by the late Babylonian stage of the Akkadian language[30] "aḫ" meant "rule."[31][32] The aḫ-ḫi element is also found in the Hurrian language variant spoken by the Mittani.[33]

Forrer believed the Achaeans were directly associated with the term "Land of Ahhiyawa" mentioned in the Hittite texts,[34] which lay to "the west."[35] It appears to have been called Ahhiya in the earliest records[36] and was involved in geopolitical matters on the western Anatolian coast during the Hittite era,[37][38] and the majority scholarship is now of the opinion that "Ahhiya/Ahhiyawa" referred to the Mycenaean world, or at least to a part of it.[26][39] Edwin Guest believed that the Achaeans and the Hellenes formed two great divisions of the Greek people, with the former constituting a dwindling ruling class over the more numerous uplanders.[40] Others have concluded that the Achaeans were the same people as the Mycenaeans.[26][41]

But there was a concurrent Egyptian tradition that associated the Mycenaean lands in Greece with the tnj (transliterated as Tanaju), generally held to be the Danaoi[42][43] and prime candidates for members of the Sintashta culture culture.[21] Protopsaltis says that their migration "can be traced from the steppes of the Ukraine to Greece. They made stopovers in the Troad territory, the Aegean Islands, and Thrace, where they received some Trojan and Aegean cultural elements, which were manifested in their Lerna settlement. Around 2100 BC, it is believed that a group of Danaoi destroyed an old community near Lake Lerna in Argolid and established their own settlement. During the same period, the destruction or displacement of other settlements took place: Argos, Corinthia, Attica, and in the Cycladic Islands. Groups of Danaoi were located in Boeotia, Phocis, in the valley of the Sphercheos River, Achaea, Phthiotis, Larisa, and Crete."[44] The chronology suggests destroyed settlements belonged to Achaeans of the Korakou culture, which Blegen cautioned were more likely to have been subject peoples of the Mycenaean state rather than its rulers.[45] The Egyptians appear to place the Achaeans in the Cyclades at the turn of the 13th century BCE.[46]

It is possible this was an instance of an Indo-Aryan elite ruling a subject people, much as which occurred with Hattians and the Mittani. Both the Danaoi and Achaean tribal names are etymologically linked to “water” in different proto-languages,[47][48] possibly an indication of mixed heritage. Homer's contribution to the Greek éthnos was to gather together the disparate subject peoples of the Mycenaeans under the umbrella of a new identity.[49]

By the 5th century BCE the Greeks began encountering unrecognizable shadows of their former selves, and Murray believed that "if a Greek of the fifth century, like Aeschylus or even Pindar, had met a group of the real Hellenes or Achaioi of the Migrations, he would have set them down as so many obvious and flaming barbarians."[50] Hekataios located the H ni okhoi[51][52] in modern-day Abkhazia, where the 5th century BCE Scylax[53] and/or the 3rd century BCE Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax placed the Akh-aioi - translated as Achaeans - subsequently located by Melikishvili near modern-day Sochi.[54]

In the 4th century BCE Herodotus spoke of the Hypachaioi of Cilicia - translated as "sub-Achaeans"[55] or "half-Achaeans"[56] — equated with the Denyen and known to the Hittites as Ahhiyawa//Hiyawa, a Mycenaean state on the Anatolian coast rather than in the Peloponnese.[57][58][59] This strongly implies a migration of Achaeans from the Peloponnese to Cilicia prior to the formation of any "Greek" identity.[60][61] In the 3rd century BCE Aristotle listed the Achaioi amongst the nations of Pontus, one of “many foreign races inclined to murder and cannibalism, for example among the tribes of the Black Sea the Achaeans and Heniochi”[62]and one of “those who do not scruple to kill men, and afterward to feed upon their flesh.”[63] And toward the end of the 1st century BCE Strabo located the Achaei just south of the Azov Sea, describing their lands as extending about five hundred stadia (approximately 50 miles) along the Black Sea coast.[64]

File:Before the Bronze Age Collapse.png

Before the Bronze Age Collapse

Revisionism[]

The theory of “barbarized” Hellenic Achaeans to explain the existence of their Pontic etymological counterparts appears to have begun in the 1st century BC, attributable to Pseudo-Scymnus and repeated by Appian in the 1st century CE, an alternate folk etymology concurrent with the legend recounted by Strabo of “the Phthiotic Achaeans in Jason's crew [that] settled in this Achaea.”[65] “There has also been some unconfirmed speculation that these groups, or at least the nearby Achaioi (cf. Achaeans) were Greek migrants escaping the Mycenaean collapse," but archaeology does not recognize this.”[66]

The east coast of the Black Sea was loosely termed as Κολχίς (Colchis),[52] described as “more a geographical than political term, and even then with uncertain boundaries.” [67] The southernmost portion is the present-day Adjara - known as აჭარა (Ach’ara) in the local language. This area was home to the Colchian culture in the middle Bronze Age[68][69] and was known to the Greeks at least as early as the 8th century BCE.[70] Greek colonization began in the mid-6th century BCE with the establishment of the city of Phasis. The name is “clearly not Greek” and is believed to be the name of the supreme deity in the Colchian pantheon.[71] Not surprisingly, there are no enumerations of Pontic tribes that predate this event, though 8th century BCE records of the Urartu identify this as the land of Qulha.[72] One of the names of the Mycenaean polity of Ahhiyawa/Hiyawa in Cicilia was Que[73] or Quwê.[74]

Guest unambiguously considered the Achaean Greeks to have been immigrants from Scythia,[40] “the vague designation given by the Greeks to the entire, huge, east European territory which extended between the Carpathian mountains and the River Tanais (Don)…inhabited by a mixed conglomeration of peoples and groups of peoples, originally nomads from central Asia, who had begun to penetrate westwards early in the second millennium BC…[who] probably spoke an Indo-European, basically Iranian tongue…[reflecting] their confusion between ruling classes (which were small, and composed of people who could be strictly regarded as Scythians) and subject peoples (who were many, and diversified).”[75] Mycenaean DNA from the Peloponnese "show a contribution of Steppe ancestry (ca. 20%), which can only be interpreted as the arrival of peoples from the north."[76] Jamieson likewise traced Greek origins to Scythia but pointed to the Pelasgians rather than the Achaeans as the source.[77]

History[]

Some scholars believe the name Ἀχαιοί originally designated a pre-Greek people and that the name Δαναοί was brought by Proto-Greeks from a region north of the Black Sea.[78][79][80][81] There is some evidence that the Achaeans preceded the Danaoi to the Peloponnese by several hundred years, forming the Korakou culture of the Early Helladic II.[82][83][84] It is possible the story of Cecrops is a mythological reference to the migration and settlement of the Achaeans,[85][86][87] who appear to have initiated the Bronze Age in the Peloponnese.[88] If accurate the period of their ascendancy was from 2650-2100 BCE. Significantly, the period known as Early Minoan terminates in 2100 BCE.[89]

Mycenaean subjects[]

Main article: [[2]]
File:Mycenaean World en.png

Map of Mycenaean cultural areas, 1400–1100 BC (unearthed sites in red dots).

While there is no consensus on the historicity of the Homeric epics,[90][91] it is generally recognized that the Catalogue of Ships was derived from a late Bronze Age source and that it accurately described the loose union of Greek city-states ruled by hereditary families under the overlordship of a High King characteristic of the Mycenaean era.[92][93] The Achaeans resided in individual territories dominated by a megaron from which they were governed.[94] Each territory was divided into several sub-regions headed by its provincial center, and each sub-region was further divided into smaller districts known as da-mo.[43] The wanax presided over all as the supreme religious, military and judicial authority,[94][43] with a deputy figure known as the "the leader of the people") at his side[43] a military aristocracy known as the ("companions" or "followers") in support[94][95] and a number of local officials that exercised authority over the districts "governor"), po-ro-ko-re-te ("deputy") the da-mo-ko-ro (damokoros, "one who takes care of a damos") and a council of elders chaired by a ke-ro-si-ja (cf. γερουσία. The great mass of people where known collectively as da-mo,[96] watched over by royal agents and obliged to perform duties and pay taxes to the megaton.[94] Occupying the lowest rung of the social ladder were the slaves, do-e-ro.[97][94]

The Mycenaean elite were focused on the redistribution of goods, commodities and labor by a central administration, with preserved Linear B records in Pylos and Knossos indicating strict monitoring of industries and commodities, the organization of land management and the rations given to the dependent personnel.[98][99][100] They organized their workforce and resources for the construction of large scale projects in the fields of agriculture and industry, and the magnitude of some projects indicates that this was the result of combined efforts from multiple megarons.[99][43][101] They imported raw materials, such as metals, ivory and glass, and exported processed commodities and objects made from these materials, in addition to local products: oil, perfume, wine, opium, wool and pottery.[102][103] Based on archaeological findings in the Middle East, they had strong commercial and cultural interaction with the Canaanites, Kassites, Mitanni, Assyrians, and Egyptians.[99][104][105][106] A chief export was olive oil, a multi-purpose product.[107] Cyprus appears to have been the principal intermediary.[108] Trade with Troy is also well attested, while Mycenaean trade routes expanded further to the Bosphorus and the shores of the Black Sea.[109] Commercial interaction was also intense with the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean, with goods exported to southern Italy, Sicily, the Aeolian islands, Sardinia.[110][111] and southern Spain.[112]Trade with the Hittite lands in central Anatolia appears to have been limited.[99][113]

It appears likely that it was this trade which drew še–er–ta–an–nu[114] (Sherden)[115] from Sardinia[116][117][118] to the region as early as the 14th century BCE.[119] Though termed “pirates” by their contemporaries,[120][121] their actions suggest they were seeking to take control of the copper trade centered at Alishiya.[122][123] In the mid 13th century they attacked the lowlands of the Peloponnese and again about 50 years later.[43][124][125] It was at this point the Mycenaean civilization centered on the Peloponnese seems to have broken[126] and the Achaeans themselves enter Egyptian history.

Egyptian Ekwesh[]

See also: Sea Peoples
File:Nomos Kykladon.png

Map of the Ekwesh as seen by the Egyptians

It is in this context then that the Achaeans “and other uprooted coastal residents” (šrdn-Sherden; šklš-Shekelesh; trš-Tyrrhenians; rk-Lukka; plšt-Peleset; djnjnjw-Denyen; ṯkr-Tjeker; wšš-Weshesh)[123][127] of what appears to be a disrupted trading network[128] migrating from west to east over the course of several generations[129] to become “competitors for power” against the Great Powers of Hattusa, Babylonia, Assyria and Egypt.[130] The Egyptians called these migrating Achaeans ikš (Ekwesh).[123]

The earliest textual reference to the Mycenaean world is in the Annals of Thutmosis III (ca. 1479–1425 BC), which refers to messengers from the king of the Tanaju, circa 1437 BC, offering greeting gifts to the Egyptian king, in order to initiate diplomatic relations, when the latter campaigned in Syria.[43] Tanaju is also listed in an inscription at the Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III. The latter ruled Egypt in circa 1382–1344 BC. Moreover, a list of the cities and regions of the Tanaju is also mentioned in this inscription; among the cities listed are Mycenae, Nauplion, Kythera, Messenia and the Thebaid (region of Thebes).[43]

During the 5th year of Pharaoh Merneptah, a confederation of Libyan and northern peoples is supposed to have attacked the western delta. Included amongst the ethnic names of the repulsed invaders is the Ekwesh or Eqwesh, whom some have seen as Achaeans, although Egyptian texts specifically mention these Ekwesh to be circumcised. Homer mentions an Achaean attack upon the delta, and Menelaus speaks of the same in Book IV of the Odyssey to Telemachus when he recounts his own return home from the Trojan War. Some ancient Greek authors also say that Helen had spent the time of the Trojan War in Egypt, and not at Troy, and that after Troy the Greeks went there to recover her.[131]

Luwian Hiyawa[]

File:NeoHittiteStates.gif

Map of post-Hittite Cilicia

There is circumstantial evidence that the Achaeans colonized the plains of Cicilia prior to the Bronze Age collapse. In the reign of Šuppiluliuma II (1207-1178) there are documents that refer to "Hiyawa-men" present in the Lukka lands to receive a consignment to be shipped to Ugarit on the orders of the Hittite king.[132] The kingdom of Quwê was a Syro-Hittite Assyriaian vassal state at least as early as the 9th century BCE in the lowlands of eastern Cilicia with a capital at Adana.[133][134] The Urartians similarly called Colchis “the land of Qulha”[72] (MATUKu-ul-ha-i-di transliterated in Greek as Ko^xiç)[135] The Cilician polity was said to have been called Hiyawa in Luwian.[133] This is the region spoken of by Herodotus in the 4th century BCE as occupied by the Hypachaioi.[55] or “half-Achaeans"[56] The Christian chronicler Eusebius of Caesarea stated that "Mopsus reigned in Cilicia’' in the years 1184/83 BCE.[136] Mopsus appears in Greek myth as an Argonaut who died on the return trip from Colchis.[137] Some researchers believe this is the Ahhiyawa of Hittite records,[57][58][59] and that it indicates an Achaoi migration prior to the formation of a Greek identity by Homer in the 8th century BCE.[60][61]

Classical Achaeans[]

File:Nomos Achaias.png

Map of Classical Achaea.

Historically, the members of the Achaean tribe inhabited the region of Achaea in the northern Peloponnese. Both Herodotus and Pausanias recount the legend that the Achaeans (referring to the tribe of the Classical period) originally dwelt in Argolis and Laconia. As Strabo noted however, this is not what Homer meant by the term Achaean.[138] Supposedly, the Achaeans were forced out of those lands by the Dorians, during the legendary Dorian invasion of the Peloponnese.[139] As a consequence, the Achaeans went to the region known as Aegialus and forced the Aegialians (by now known as the Ionians) out of their land.[140] The Ionians took temporary refuge in Athens, and Aegialus became known as Achaea.[141][142]

The Achaeans cemented their common identity in the 6th century BCE in response to the rising power of Sicyon to the east and Sparta to the south, and during the 5th century BCE in response to the expansionism of the Achaemenids.[143] Herodotus described them as unified nation composed of 12 city-states: Pellene, Aegeira, Aeges, (Achaea) Boura, Helike, Aegion, Rhypes, Patrai, Pherae, Olenos, Dyme and Tritaia.[144] The rise of Macedonia in the late 4th century BCE seems to destroyed this first Achaean League, with the Macedonians eventually controlling so many of the member city-states that the Achaean federal government had virtually ceased to function.[145]

After Macedon's defeat by the Romans in the early 2nd century BC, the League was able to finally defeat a heavily weakened Sparta and take control of the entire Peloponnese. However, as the Roman influence in the area grew, the league erupted into an open revolt against Roman domination, in what is known as Achaean War. The Achaeans were defeated at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC) and the League was dissolved by the Romans.[146]

Mythology[]

According to the foundation myth formalized by Hesiod, their name comes from their mythic founder Achaeus, who was supposedly one of the sons of Xuthus, and brother of Ion, the founder of the Ionian tribe. Xuthus was in turn the son of Hellen, the mythical patriarch of the Greek (Hellenic) nation.[147]Template:Better source needed

Both Herodotus and Pausanias recount the legend that the Achaeans (referring to the tribe of the Classical period) originally dwelt in Argolis and Laconia. According to Herodotus, the Achaeans were forced out of those lands by the Dorians, during the legendary Dorian invasion of the Peloponnese.[148] As a consequence, the Achaeans went to the region known as Aegialus and forced the Aegialians (by now known as the Ionians) out of their land.[149] The Ionians took temporary refuge in Athens, and Aegialus became known as Achaea.[141][150]Template:Better source needed

Pausanias says that 'Achaean' was the name of those Greeks originally inhabiting the Argolis and Laconia, because they were descended from the sons of the mythical Achaeus, Archander and Architeles.[151] According to Pausanias, Achaeus originally dwelt in Attica, where his father had settled after being expelled from Thessaly. Achaeus later returned to Thessaly to reclaim the land, and it was from there that Archander and Architeles travelled to the Peloponnesus.[152] It was supposedly for this reason that there was also an ancient part of Thessaly known as Phthiotic Achaea.Template:Better source needed

Sources[]

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References[]

  1. ↑ Margalit Finkelberg, "From Ahhiyawa to Ἀχαιοί", Glotta 66 (1988): 127–134.
  2. ↑ According to Finkelberg, this derivation does not necessitate an ultimate Greek and Indo-european origin of the word: "Obviously, this deduction cannot supply conclusive proof that Ahhiyawa presents a Greek word, the more so as neither the etymology of this word nor its cognates are known to us".
  3. ↑ R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill, 2009, p. 181.
  4. ↑ Drummond, William. Origines, Or Remarks on the Origin of Several Empires, States and Cities, p. 45, 186. United Kingdom, Baldwin, 1829.
  5. ↑ According to Drummond: “It seems highly probable, then, to say the least of it, that aché, or oché, was an ancient Greek word, which signified water, and which entered into the word okeanos, as may be inferred from the passage cited from Diodorus. This radical, which might easily vary in sound, and be differently pronounced ach, ag, ak, (and with any other vowel instead of the a,) appears to have been lost as a separate vocable, and is only now to be found in composition. I think, however, that we may trace it in various words which relate to water -agáppoos, aqua currens vel estuosa-arry, littus -öxe-revw, rivos duco-oxéreva, aqueductus--ëyla, ripa---óxeròs, canalis--úypòs, humidus--úypr), mare.”
  6. ↑ Proceedings of the Tenth Annual UCLA Indo-European Conference, p. 95. Los Angeles, May 21-23, 1998. United States, Institute for the Study of Man, 1999.
  7. ↑ This etymological connection between “water” and “ruler” is explored further in Mesopotamian studies, where the Sumerian loanword en-si-ak (manager of the arable/irrigated lands) passes into old Akkadian as issi’akkum (territorial ruler). Averbeck, Richard E. "A Preliminary Study of Ritual and Structure in the Cylinders of Gudea," p. 237. United States, University Microfilms International (U.M.I.), 1991; Jacobsen, Thorkild. “The Term Ensi." Harvard University. AnOr (Fs. M. Civil) 9 (1991) 113-121.
  8. ↑ Jensen, Erik. Barbarians in the Greek and Roman World, p. 24. United States, Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2018.
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  10. ↑ Thomson, James Alexander Kerr. Studies in the Odyssey, p. 132. United Kingdom, Clarendon Press (1914).
  11. ↑ Athanassakis and Wolkow, pp. 90, on lines 1–2, 91, on line 5; Kerényi, p. 197
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  15. ↑ Rawlinson, George, History of Herodotus, Volume I, second edition, London, John Murray, 1862. Internet Archive.
  16. ↑ R. Schmitt (1983), “Achaemenid Dynasty,”Encyclopædia Iranica, I/4, pp. 414-426. [1] (accessed on 2 February 2014).
  17. ↑ Judah and the Judeans in the Achaemenid Period: Negotiating Identity in an International Context, p. 230. Germany, Penn State University Press, 2011.
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  19. ↑ Miller, D. Gary. Homer and the Ionian epic tradition: some phonic and phonological evidence against an Aeolic "phase". Austria, Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck, 1982.
  20. ↑ Baldick, Julian. Homer and the Indo-Europeans: comparing mythologies. United Kingdom, Bloomsbury Academic, 1994.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Kuzmina, Elena E. (2007). The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16054-5.
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  24. ↑ The Complete Works of Hesiod ( Ησίοδος ) . Illustrated: Works And Days ( Έργα και Ημέραι ) , The Theogony, The Catalogues of Women and Eoiae, The Shield Of Heracles and Others., “Fragment Eight.” N.p., Strelbytskyy Multimedia Publishing (2021).
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  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Latacz, Joachim. Troy and Homer: towards a solution of an old mystery, p. 218. United Kingdom, OUP Oxford (2004).
  27. ↑ Güterbock, Hans G. (April 1983). "The Hittites and the Aegean World: Part 1. The Ahhiyawa Problem Reconsidered". American Journal of Archaeology. 87 (2): 133–138.
  28. ↑ Melchert, Craig. “Mycenaean and Hittite Diplomatic Correspondence: Fact and Fiction.” Classical Inquiries, Harvard (2020). Classical Inquiries
  29. ↑ Jäntti, S.A.O. "Geminate Stops in Anatolian: Evidence and Typological Implications." University of Leiden (2013) MA Comparative Indo-European Linguistics
  30. ↑ Schmidt, Martina. "Some Remarks on Language Usage in Late Babylonian Letters." Open Linguistics 2017; 3: 378–395.
  31. ↑ The name of Xerxes I translates as 𒄴𒄭𒅈𒋙 (aḫ-ḫi-ar-šú, literally "ruling over heroes”).
  32. ↑ Tavernier, Jan (2007) Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (ca. 550–330 B.C.): Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts, Peeters Publishers.
  33. ↑ Homan, Zenobia. Mittani Palaeography, p. 206. Netherlands, Brill, 2019.
  34. ↑ Template:Harvnb.
  35. ↑ Template:Harvnb;Template:Harvnb; Template:Harvnb.
  36. ↑ Translation of the Sins of Madduwatta Template:Webarchive
  37. ↑ Translation of the Tawagalawa Letter Template:Webarchive
  38. ↑ Template:Harvnb.
  39. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Guest, Edwin. Origines celticæ. United Kingdom, Macmillan & Company (1883).
  41. ↑ Middleton, John. World Monarchies and Dynasties. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis (2015).
  42. ↑ A Companion to the Archaeology of Early Greece and the Mediterranean, p.1220. United Kingdom, Wiley, 2020.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 43.4 43.5 43.6 43.7 Template:Cite journal
  44. ↑ Protopsaltis, Demetrios. An Encyclopedic Chronology of Greece and Its History. United States, Xlibris Corporation, p. 50-61 (2012).
  45. ↑ "The [Korakou] civilization thus briefly outlined may be conceived as slowly evolving through four or five centuries. Before attaining its culmination, however, it was extinguished, and, as we have seen, the period ends at Korakou with the total destruction of the settlement. The evidence of the pottery indicates a complete break in continuity of civilization; almost no elements of Early Helladic culture seem to have survived the catastrophe. Accordingly, if the earlier inhabitants were not entirely exterminated or driven out, they were at least brought into complete subjection. This conquest was apparently carried out by a more powerful race coming from the north...The new culture, which immediately established itself on the site of the old, was of a more aggressive and more vigorous type...Here we may be dealing with the forerunners of the architects who produced the great fortification walls of Tiryns and Mycenae." See Blegen, Carl William. Korakou: A Prehistoric Settlement Near Corinth, p. 122-126. United Kingdom, American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 1921.
  46. ↑ Woudhuizen, Frederik Christiaan (2006). The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples (Ph.D.). Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam, Faculteit der Wijsbegeerte.
  47. ↑ Avestan dānu = river. Haarmann, Harald. On the Trail of the Indo-Europeans: From Neolithic Steppe Nomads to Early Civilisations. Germany, marixverlag, 2021.
  48. ↑ Paleo-European substrate ak = water. Pronk, Tijmen. "Proto-Indo-European *a". Indo-European Linguistics 7.1 (2019): 122-163. Web.
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